Application of GAP Data Vickerman and Smith (1995) identified three basic types of application of GAP data to conservation planning: (1) situation-specific decision making, (2) integration with existing plans or planning processes, and (3) systematic land use planning. In order to develop an early profile of the use of GAP data for situation-specific planning, the GAP national coordinator categorized 43 documented cases of this type of application from 12 state projects. The results are shown below in Figure 12. The most frequent (34%) situation-specific application of GAP data was for direct land management, where quick access to ecological information was required to meet an immediate need at low cost, such as a rapid assessment of the distribution of a habitat type in response to proposed changes in management or use. The subsections below begin with a discussion of ways to access GAP data, then the applications of GAP in the form of two current education and outreach activities are reviewed, as is the integration of GAP and socioeconomics. Finally, some examples of GAP data applications by businesses and non-government organizations, local governments, and state and federal agencies are presented.
Figure 12. Some uses of GAP data by general categories. Access One goal of GAP is to make products, whether basic data or derived results, widely available at the lowest cost possible. A potential user of GAP data should be able to gain access to the data from a wide variety of sources. Presently, all completed GAP data can be accessed over the Internet through GAP's World Wide Web Home Page. The address is http://www.gap.uidaho.edu/gap. Data transfer is also available through mailed tapes. Although all GAP data sets are not maintained at Utah State University's GIS laboratory, access to all sites which do maintain GAP data is linked to the GAP Home Page. An exciting development for data access is the production of a "read-only-memory compact disk" (CD-ROM, or "CD") containing the GAP data for Utah. This was a successful pilot project meant to test the potential of distributing GAP data on low-cost CD's. Based on the success of this project, GAP will pursue the development of a CD for each state as the projects are completed. The Utah CD project has shown that the CD technology offers wide distribution of large data sets at low prices, meeting both the technical users market and the educational market. Finally, all GAP data, whether basic satellite images, spectrally clustered images, air video tapes, ground control points, or interpreted land cover, will be archived at the USGS EROS Data Center as part of the national Multi-Resolution Land Cover database. Under the MRLC, the GAP data will be merged with urban and agricultural land cover data to provide a detailed national land cover data set. In addition to being made available to the public through the automated USGS Global Land Information System (GLIS), the GAP data will be secured on stable-base media for long-term storage at EDC. One of the greatest challenges for long-term access to GAP data, however, remains the establishment of GAP information nodes in each state. Education and Outreach There is a powerful demand for educational materials related to all of the major facets of GAP. Most state Gap Analysis projects distribute a newsletter for cooperators and educators. On the technical side, the areas of interest for education include computers, satellite imagery, Geographic Information Systems (GIS), Global Positioning Systems (GPS), and aerial video techniques. On the scientific side, this includes the process of discovery relative to biology, ecology, and conservation. Many GAP state projects, however, are unable to fully respond to this demand due to limited staff, funding, and project deadlines. Generally, the degree of education and outreach associated with each GAP project depends on the cooperators that make up that project. Two of the outstanding examples of GAP-related education and outreach are presented below.
One of the most involved and successful education and outreach activities has been developed by Karen Dvornich, the Washington State GAP Coordinator. Her efforts have resulted in the "NatureMapping" program (Dvornich et al. in press). For this work, Dvornich has received the Robert Rodale 1995 National Environmental Achievement Award. The central concept of NatureMapping is to link natural resource agencies and academia with elementary and high schools through GAP activities and resulting data. The approach is to provide curricula and tools to the public and to schools for both classroom teaching and field experiences covering geography, wildlife biology, mathematics, ecology, and computing. Of prominent importance though, is the creation of a feedback loop to the Gap Analysis project. The information and results developed by students are provided back to GAP researchers and assessed for possible inclusion into the GAP data. The final step is to inform the students of how their results were used, or if not used, why, and what is needed to produce information that can be used. As of September 1995, there were 340 classroom teachers actively involved in the NatureMapping program in Washington State. Interest has been expressed by the fish and wildlife agencies in Colorado, Kansas, Oklahoma, Ontario (Canada), Oregon, Texas, and Virginia in sponsoring NatureMapping programs. Additionally, the American Museum of Natural History has expressed a high level of interest in NatureMapping as an education and outreach tool. NatureMapping includes: a set of written materials (instruction guidelines) for teachers on collecting field data; specially designed education software for data entry and actual database-building; an instructional video; a set of local USGS topographic maps; and professional support. The professional support is provided by a wide variety of organizations, including local planning offices, state agencies, and citizen's groups such as the Senior Environmental Corps (retired natural resources professionals), and local Audubon Society chapters. Support is provided in the form of field trip supervision, instruction, and transportation to field sites. NatureMapping also works with teachers on further incorporating these activities into other existing curricula.
This initiative is the educational component of the Tennessee Biodiversity Program. The goals of the Tennessee Biodiversity Educational Initiative are to:
The initiative has produced a high quality educational video for ages 8-18 ("Songbirds & Biodiversity: Threads in the Fabric of Life," 14 minutes), and continues to develop curriculum materials that will incorporate GAP data. Integrating Socioeconomics into GAP Socioeconomic factors are being integrated into the GAP process by way of its applications in natural resources planning. These applications are discussed below in the sections on county and city planning, state uses, regional and multi-state planning, and uses by federal agencies. However, the conceptual basis for extending the results of Gap Analysis to systematically include socioeconomic factors has been advanced by McKendry and Machlis (1993). In February 1994, a workshop entitled "Socioeconomic Factors and Biodiversity: An Advanced Research Workshop" was conducted by Machlis (Machlis et al. 1994) at Semiahmoo, Washington. McKendry and Machlis (1993) provide a model for extending Gap Analysis to include socioeconomic factors using geographically explicit socioeconomic indicators such as human population change, economic trends, and land use zoning to identify the conservation gaps that are most vulnerable due to socioeconomic factors (also see Forester et al. in press). Machlis et al. (1994) produced a prototype of an extended Gap Analysis for Idaho and are continuing their work using GAP data in Washington State with funding from the Northwestern Regional Office of the Environmental Protection Agency. At the workshop on socioeconomic factors (Machlis et al. 1994), the participants identified challenges to the advancement of extended Gap Analysis in the areas of theory, methods, and application. The most relevant challenges identified by the workshop participants are briefly listed below under each of the three areas.
Businesses and Non-Government Organizations Largely because GAP is a new technique and most products are still being developed, its use by the private sector is not yet widespread. However, there is substantial involvement of businesses with GAP. For example, cooperators with GAP state projects include:
The following are some examples of applications of GAP data by the private sector:
County and City Planning Local governments plan for the uses that occur on most of the land areas of the U.S., yet they are the least prepared and the least able to invest in developing large-area, ecologically sound spatial data of their jurisdiction and of their larger bioregional context (Jennings and Reganold 1988, Jennings et al. 1988, Jennings 1989). Jennings and Reganold (1989) found that a scientific basis for managing natural resources by local governments is lacking. They identified the following minimum requirements needed in order to achieve a scientifically-based approach:
Products from GAP (such as the Natural Land Cover classification system, digital base maps derived from TM, interpreted biogeographic data sets, or other easy access to digital products) are meeting the first three of these requirements, at least at a primary level. Data generated by a GAP state project are not appropriate for the site-level planning that much local planning is focused on, however, GAP data: (a) are the only consistent interpreted data of natural land cover that allow for coordinated conservation planning across large areas, (b) provide an ecological and geographic framework for finer-scale information, and (c) provide planners with the ecological context of their planning jurisdiction. Although GAP data are just beginning to become available to local planners, they are being rapidly integrated at this level of government. Below are some examples of such applications. One of the most interesting cases of local governments using GAP data is by the Southern California Association of Governments (SCAG), which is a metropolitan planning organization covering six of the eight counties of Southern California. In addition to the six county governments, 182 cities are represented by SCAG. The SCAG jurisdiction encompasses almost 100,000 square kilometers within an area for which a 33 percent increase of human population is projected in the next 15 years (Crowe in press). A partnership was developed between SCAG and the California Gap Analysis Project because: (1) SCAG "needed a regional, futuristic perspective on the conservation status of biodiversity and a method to determine where to focus priorities for ecosystem planning," (Crowe in press, p.11) and (2) the GAP information for the area was available. Areas where biodiversity was at risk were identified using GAP data. The GAP data were also used to evaluate strategies developed in response to conservation needs. One strategy developed by SCAG is for county and city jurisdictions to form partnerships to meet the specific conservation needs of a natural community or a species at risk. When the GAP biological data were combined with the SCAG land ownership data, they showed which ownerships and jurisdictions were needed for joint conservation planning and management of a particular natural community or species, maximizing efficiency and minimizing the potential for yet another conservation crisis. The GAP data were also used to show which natural communities were represented in local research and education reserves (Crowe in press). An application of this strategy is demonstrated by the pact formed between county and city planners of several jurisdictions, wildlife agencies, developers of the 4S Ranch property, and the state Natural Communities Conservation Planning program. Using the GAP regional data, as well as more detailed information, these groups agreed to conserve 1,640 acres of habitat within a 2,900-acre planned development. By resolving habitat conservation concerns early, the developer has obtained a measure of certainty that the project can move forward without conflict or delay. Planners used the GAP data to forecast and visualize scenarios that directed growth away from small, sensitive plant communities toward those with more widespread occurrences which are less likely to experience near-term extirpation. These exercises helped to define and model a land exchange program where public lands having plant communities with a low risk of extirpation or extinction could be traded for lands that support plant communities at high risk. Some other examples of the use of GAP by local governments are:
In Tennessee, Durham (1994) produced a planning guide for county land use planners and local government officials. This is a landmark work explaining what natural resources information is currently available for county-level natural resources planning, where it can be obtained, and how it can be applied at the local level to sustain economic development in a manner minimizing conflicts and related site development costs. The guide includes an overview and access information for much more than GAP data, for example, National Wetlands Inventory, Tennessee Rivers Information System, and recreational lands information. Local land use planning may become the largest volume client of GAP data. Early recognition of this potential and exploration of pro-active strategies to meet this need are an important part of the current discussions within the GAP community. State Uses A systematic approach for developing science-based ecological information at many different scales and themes and across large areas has until now been lacking from the management of natural resources (Jennings and Reganold 1992). This condition has lead, in no small way, to misunderstandings and misinformed choices, contributing to social and political conflicts centered on natural resources today. Building partnerships around common information, particularly across state jurisdictions, is becoming even more important for two reasons. In order to maintain biological diversity, a greater amount of coordination will be required among and between state governments due to the magnitude of current and projected land use changes. And, as environmental regulation becomes less centralized, consistent and shared information for the management of natural resources becomes more important to effective and consistent decision making. The GAP data are being applied by state agencies as soon as they become available. A number of states are developing a strategic planning process, using GAP data, to maintain biological resources while sustaining economic activities. Ultimately, GAP data need to be provided at the state level by state biological information nodes ("bioinformation nodes"). The sections below review some uses by state agencies, statewide planning activities, and state bioinformation nodes.
State agencies are a primary contributor to, and user of, GAP data. Over one-quarter of all GAP cooperators are state agencies, and GAP would not be possible without the involvement of state agencies. The following are some examples of uses of GAP data by state agencies:
Biodiversity planning programs or projects are now under way in Arizona, California, Colorado, Maine, Missouri, Nevada, Oregon, and Tennessee. It is likely that similar efforts will develop in other states. These activities were the subject of the State Biodiversity Programs meeting. In some cases, these efforts grew out of the state Gap Analysis project, however in most cases, the GAP data are being used to meet a previously defined need. In all cases, GAP data are central to their development and operations. The goals of each of these programs or projects are presented briefly below.
The BIOTA goal is to identify areas in Arizona with significant biodiversity values within an open, multilateral forum of private land users and public agencies. The forum will be used as a basis for future cooperative conservation activities. Contact person: Bruce Taubert, Arizona Game and Fish, 2221 W. Greenway Rd., Phoenix, AZ 850233-4399. (Note: Toward the end of 1995, support for BIOTA declined, and its future was uncertain at the time of this writing.)
Supported by the California Biodiversity Executive Council, the primary goal of the program is to promote regional conservation planning by developing private/public partnerships. Using GAP and other information, areas of high biological significance are identified and incorporated into regional planning activities. Regional efforts are supported and monitored by the state Executive Council. Contact person: Frank Davis, Geography Department, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106-4060.
Led by the Colorado Division of Wildlife, the goal is to set priorities for habitat conservation in Colorado and to provide county and city governments with the tools for making informed decisions about the wildlife resources within their jurisdictions. There are three parallel efforts: (1) develop a collaborative process for citizen-based priority-setting for conservation, (2) provide an information system to help with public priority-setting, and (3) publish a handbook on mechanisms for wildlife conservation in Colorado counties. Contact person: Don Schrupp, Colorado Division of Wildlife, Habitat Resources Section, 6060 N. Broadway, Denver, CO 80216.
The goal is to maintain the biological diversity of Maine's forests through a science-based collaborative process involving all stakeholders, accommodating both socioeconomic and conservation concerns. This project is beginning by evaluating the network of conservation lands in Maine. Contact person: Leslie Hudson, Maine Biodiversity Project, 15 Webster Rd., Orono, ME 04473.
The mission is to provide information and technical support for natural resources planning and management in Missouri. A technical facility has been established. This program is beginning with the GAP data and then will develop higher-resolution information of natural resources. Contact person: Tim Haithcoat, 18 Stewart Hall, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211.
The goal is to address the integration of human uses of natural resources and conservation to ensure the perpetuation of native species while meeting human needs. There are five basic objectives: (1) articulate and clarify the value of biological diversity to Nevada residents, (2) provide a framework by which complex issues about biodiversity can be resolved, (3) work with all concerns to incorporate science-based conservation needs into planning processes, (4) obtain and computerize accurate and current information on biotic diversity for public access, and (5) conduct research for natural resources management to improve options for conservation. Contact person: Dr. Peter Brussard, Department of Biology, University of Nevada, Reno, NV 89557-0050.
The goal is to facilitate a collaborative process for developing a statewide strategy that will conserve Oregon's biological diversity, providing an objective context by which to make local, site-specific land use decisions. Also, to identify long-term management options for land owners and land managers that will avoid the listing of species as endangered. Contact person: Sara Vickerman, Defenders of Wildlife, 1637 Laurel St., Lake Oswego, OR 97034.
The goals are to: (1) coordinate natural resources planning and management in Tennessee, (2) promote the use of natural resources information at the local level, (3) encourage developers, planners, land owners, and others to make and use information about biodiversity so as to guide development decisions at the community and regional levels in the state. Contact person: Bob Ford, Tennessee Conservation League, 300 Orlando Ave., Nashville, TN 37209-3200.
As the GAP data are developed, they are disseminated electronically, mostly over the Internet. However, there is a demand for a state-level capability to serve and support these data. Much of this demand is for non-electronic support. Most GAP state projects have neither the long-term funding nor the institutional support to provide this capability. In some states, there is a commitment by a state agency to serve the data electronically. State-level Internet sites are firmly in place in Arkansas, California, Nebraska, New Mexico, Utah, and Washington. Each of these is, or soon will be, interconnected through the GAP Home Page. The Gap Analysis Program is working with staff of the NBS Office of Information and Technical Services to: (a) design a generic state bioinformation node that would meet the needs of GAP and contribute to the National Biological Information Infrastructure, and (b) develop a multi-faceted strategy to develop these information nodes with state partners. Regional and Multi-State Planning The broadest multi-state regional planning activity using GAP data is being developed for the Lower Mississippi Valley. Known as the Lower Mississippi Valley Ecosystem Management Initiative (LMV), the goal is to provide a large-area scientific basis for managing habitat across this multi-state region. The LMV is attempting to expand on the Lower Mississippi Joint Venture, which was established to implement the North American Waterfowl Plan for the region, by covering all vertebrate species and habitat types. Another application of GAP data for regional planning is the Sierra Nevada Ecosystem Project (SNEP), led by the U.S. Forest Service. In this project, detailed management plans for public lands were mapped and are used interactively with the GAP land cover data. Federal Agency Applications Some examples of applications of GAP data by federal agencies follow:
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